- I could have gone to Oxford University but I preferred Harvard.
- She could have married him but she didn’t want to.
- They could have bought a house here 20 years ago but chose not to.
- You could have phoned me to let me know.
- They could have helped me instead of just sitting there.
- I could have done more to help you. Sorry.
- I couldn’t have managed without you.
- I couldn’t have got the job. He was always going to appoint his nephew.
- I couldn’t have enjoyed myself more. Thank you for a lovely day.
- She could have taken the earlier train.
- Simon could have told her.
- They could have overheard what we said.
- Can she have forgotten about our meeting?
- He can’t have seen us.
- They can hardly have thought that I was not interested in the job.
- You could have broken your neck, jumping out the window like that.
- He could have hurt somebody, throwing a bottle out of the window like that.
- I could have done well in my exam if I’d worked harder.
- I could have been earning a lot as an accountant but the work was just too boring.
- He could have been Prime Minister now but he got involved in a big financial scandal.
- They could have been the market leaders now if they had taken his advice.
2. To do, does, did dan done, dapat berfungsi sebagai kata kerja biasa yang berarti mengerjakan.
- She was at my house yesterday
- I am a doctor
Sebagai kata kerja bantu dalam membentuk kalimat tanya, kalimat menyangkal (negative), atau jawaban singkat.
- She did her homework yesterday.
- 1 do my homework every day.
3. Have, has dan had, Berfungsi sebagai kata kerja biasa yang berarti “mempunyai“.
- Did you go to church yesterday?
- Does he come to your house?
- Do you know about Anne? Yes, I do.
Sebagai kata kerja bantu dalam membentuk Tense, misalnya present perfect tense, past perfect tense dan sebagainya.
- I have a new care.
- She has much money.
- He had two cars last year.
Penggunaan Modal Auxiliary
- She has bought a new car.
- He had studies French.
- She has been working here for 12 years.
2. Minta izin.
- She can sing beautifully.
- 1 can speak English.
3. Kemungkinan.
- Can I borrow your book?
- Can I come to your house?
- She can be at home at noon.
- He can be ill. (mungkin dia sakit).
2. Permintaan dengan sopan.
- Mary could sing a song when she was young.
- She could not come here yesterday because she was ill.
3. Kemungkinan.
- Could you help me now?
- Could you take that book for me?
- She could be at home now, but she usually plays volleyball.
- He could be very busy at that time.
2. Menawarkan Bantuan.
- I shall go to London tomorrow. (Saya akan pergi ke London besok).
- We shall buy a new motorcycle next week.
3. Janji.
- Shall I open the window?
- Shall I make coffee for you?
- You shall have a motorcycle.
(Saya janjikan anda akan dapat mempunyai sepeda motor).- I shall meet her tomorrow.
2. Anjuran (Artinya “sebaiknya”).
- When he come to my house I should go.
- I should visit to your house before you came to my house.
3. Keharusan
- You are ill, you should go to the doctor soon.
- She is tired, she should take a rest.
4. Dalam bentuk lampaunya berarti menunjukkan suatu kegiatan yang seharusnya dikerjakan tetapi kenyataannya tidak dikerjakan. Atau dapat juga berarti penyesalan dimasa lampau.
- You should (ought to) do your homework every day.
- He should (ought to) study hard.
- You should (ought to) have studied hard before take an exam. = Anda seharusnya belajar dengan keras sebelum mengikuti ujian. (Dalam kenyataannya Anda tidak belajar dengan keras, tetapi tetap mengikuti ujian).
- John should (ought to) have gone to the dentist yesterday. (Dalam kenyataannya John tidak pergi ke dokter gigi kemarin – he did not go).
2. Permintaan dengan sopan atau menawarkan.
- I will go to Jakarta next week.
(=I am going to Jakarta next week).- She will come here soon.
- Will you carry that bag for me?
- Will you go with me?
2. Suatu permohonan/permintaan dengan sopan.
- He would be punished before he escaped.
- She knows that it would be pleasant in Bali.
3. Jika digabung dengan kata LIKE menunjukkan hasrat atau keinginan.
- Would you please help me?
- Would you mind closing the window?
4. Digabung dengan kata “rather” menunjukkan arti Lebih suka (prefer).
- I would like to eat.
- Would you like to go there?
- I would rather be a doctor than a president.
- I would rather have stayed home than went to the movies.
2. Permohonan atau harapan.
- May I borrow your motorcycle? Yes, you may.
(Bolehkah aku pinjam sepeda motormu?)- May I go home now? No, you may not.
(Bolehkah aku pulang sekarang?)- Henry may be late.
(Mungkin Henry terlambat).
- May you both the happy. (Mudah-mudahan Anda berdua bahagia).
- May God bless you. (Mudah-mudahan Tuhan memberkati Anda).
- Alex might be late yesterday.
(Mungkin Alex terlambat kemarin).- Please take an umbrella with you, It might rain.
(Bawalah payung, hari mungkin hujan).- I told him that he might go home.
(Saya beritahukan kepadanya bahwa ia boleh pulang).- You might try to be more careful.
2. Dalam kalimat menyangkal (negatif) dan membuat jawaban dari kalimat tanya, selalu digunakan NEED NOT atau Needn’t bukan musn’t (must not).
- You must go now.
(Anda harus pergi sekarang!)- I must do my homework soon.
(Saya harus segera mengerjakan peker aan rumahku).- She must study hard.
(Dia harus belajar keras).
3. Must not (musn’t) menunjukkan (berarti) larangan atau tidak boleh.
- Must I go now? Yes, you must atau yes, you need.
- Must she pay it? No, she needn’t.
- You needn’t go now.
(Anda tidak perlu pergi sekarang) bukan musn’t.- She need not come here. again.
(Dia tak perlu lagi datang ke sini).
4. Must = Have to (she/he has to) berarti harus.
- You must not smoke in the class.
(Anda dilarang merokok di dalam kelas).- Susan mustn’t go there alone.
(Susan tidak boleh (dilarang) pergi ke sana sendirian).
5. Must tidak mempunyai bentuk Past Tense. Bentuk lampau yang berarti “harus/mesti” adalah HAD TO, dan bentuknya sama untuk semua obyek.
- You must (have to) read this book. (Anda harus membaca buku ini).
- She must (has to) go to school today. (Dia harus ke sekolah hari ini).
- They must (or have to) work hard. (Mereka harus bekerja keras).
- I had to meet my sister yesterday.
(Saya kemarin harus berjumpa saudara perempuanku).- She had to leave for Jakarta last week.
(Dia harus meninggalkan Jakarta pekan lalu).
2. Menyatakan tugas/pekerjaan yang tidak terselesaikan/terpenuhi atau terabaikan. Biasanya dalam bentuk Perfect Infinitives
- She ought to be here now.
(Dia seharusnya ada di sini sekarang).- Ought she to come here again?
(Haruskah dia datang ke sini lagi?)- She asked me what ought to be typed.
(Dia bertanya kepadaku apa yang harus diketik).
- The work ought to have been finished last week.
(Pekerjaan itu seharusnya sudah diselesaikan pekan lalu).- You ought not (oughtn’t) to have crossed the road when the lights were red.
(Anda seharusnya tidak menyeberang jalan ketika lampu berwarna merah).- You ought to have told him that the paint on that seat is wet.
(Anda seharusnya sudah memberi tahu dia bahwa cat pada tempat duduk itu masih basah).
2. Sebagai kata kerja biasa yang berarti “perlu” dan mengalami perubahan bentuk.
- I must go now. (Positif).
- I needn’t go now. (Negatif). bukan: I mustn’t go now, karena kalimat ini berarti.: (Saya dilarang pergi sekarang).
- Must I go now? No, you needn’t atau Yes, you must.
Catatan:
- He dare go there alone.
(Dia berani pergi sendirian ke sana)- Dare he do it?
- I dare not to climb the tree.
Dalam bentuk past tense, Dare mempunyai dua macam bentuk yang dapat dipakai untuk kalimat tanya atau kalimat negatif .
- She doesn’t dare to go there alone.
- Does he dare to come here again?
- I don’t dare to climb the tree.
- He dared not to go there alone yesterday, atau He didn’t dare (to) go three alone.
- Dared he go there alone? atau Did he dare (to) go there alone?
- She dared not visit me last week, atau She didn’t dare (to) visit me last week.
2. Adverbs menerangkan kata sifat (Adjectives)
- They work hard. (hard menerangkan work)
- She speaks French fluently.
3. Adverbs menerangkan Kata Depan (Prepositions)
- Mr. Alex is very rich. (very menerangkan rich)
- This coffee is too hot to drink.
4. Adverbs menerangkan kata keterangan lainnya (Adverbs)
- The cat is sitting almost outside the door. (almost menerangkan outside)
- I arrived there long before the time.
5. Adverbs menerangkan Kata Sambung (Conjunctions)
- I can swim very well. (very menerangkan well)
- You worked too hard.
6. Adverbs menerangkan keseluruhan kalimat
- I can see clearly how she killed her mother. (clearly menerangkan how)
- I arrived at home precisely before the rain fell.
- Yesterday, we saw your boyfriend in the mall.
- Unfortunately, the boy was killed in the end of the film
2. Ada juga beberapa Adverbs yang memiliki bentuk yang sama dengan Adjectives-nya.
- beautiful - beautifully
- smart - smartly
- serious - seriously
- slow - slowly
- dll
3. Ada juga 1 kata sifat yang memiliki bentuk yang berbeda pada Adverbs-nya
- fast - fast
- hard - hard
- free - free
- dll
- good - well
2). Adverbs of Place (Keterangan Tempat) Adverbs ya ng sering dipakai adalah: here, there, hence, thence, above, below, beside, in, on, inside, outside, far, near, dll.
- Press the button now.
- I have never been.
- I tell him daily.
3). Adverbs of Number (Kata Keterangan Bilangan) Adverbs yang sering dipakai adalah: once, twice, thrice, again, firstly, never, often, sometimes, dll
- Daisies grow everywhere.
- I did not put it there.
4). Adverbs of Manner, Quality, State (Kata Keterangan Cara, Kualitas, dan Keadaan) Adverbs yang sering dipakai adalah: well, seriously, probably, thus, so, dll.
- I go to school five times a week
- You have to take the medicine twice a day.
5). Adverbs of Quantity, Extent, Degree (Kata Keterangan Kuantitas, Taraf, Tingkat) Adverbs yang sering dipakai adalah much, too, enough, very, somewhat, rather, completely, dll.
- I can finish the work quickly
- He ran fast
- You are quite right
- You are young enough to be an acctress.
2). Adverbs of Place
- When did you came?
- How long will you stay at the hotel?
3). Adverbs of Number
- Where do you live?
- Whence did you come?
4). Adverbs of Manner, Quality, State
- How often do you come to her house?
5). Adverbs of Quantity, Extent, Degree
- How did you do the homework?
- How are you today?
6). Adverbs of Cause and Effect
- How far was the news true?
- Why did he leave?
- Wherefore did she weep?
2). Antecedent Dimengerti
- This is the hotel where she stays at
- let me know the time when you will leave for London
- This is where she stays at
- let me know when you will leave for London.
|
Adverbs
|
Tingkat Lebih
|
Tingkat Paling
|
| fast | faster | fastest |
| hard | harder | hardest |
| late | later | latest, last |
| soon | sooner | soonest |
|
Adverbs
|
Tingkat Lebih
|
Tingkat Paling
|
| seriously | more seriously | most seriously |
| successfully | more successfully | most successfully |
| loudly | more loudly | most loudly |
| beautifully | more beautifully | most beautiful |
|
Adverbs
|
Tingkat Lebih
|
Tingkat Paling
|
| well | better | best |
| far | farther, further | farthest, furthest |
| much | more | most |
| little | less | least |
- William belajar Bahasa Inggris lebih serius daripada abangnya. (William studies English more seriously than his brother does) (BUKAN: more serious, sebab, kita sudah mendapati kata "study", maka kita harus menggunakan Adverbs sesudahnya, bukan Adjectives)
- William studies English harder than his brother does.
2. Predicative Adverbs dipakai sebagai predicative jika Adverbs dijadikan bagian dari predikat sebuah kalimat, atau jelasnya, jika ia dipakai sebagai komplemen dari kata kerja yang mendahuluinya.
- He shouted loudly
- He is quite right
- He is entirely wrong
- The struggle is over
- She will be better soon
- The two girls are much alike
- My new book is out
- She is well today
2. Dalam keadaan biasa, susunan kata keterangan adalah Adverb of Manner, Place, and Time. Contoh:
- I have been to London several time this year.
- He walked round the park twice before supper.
- She gave lectures at the college three days a week last year.
3. Adverb of Frequency berada setelah kata kerja bantu (auxiliary verb atau modal)), bila dalam kalimat ada kata kerja bantu-nya. Contoh:
- Arifah studies seriously at school every day.
- Ali ate food greedily at home this morning.
- My elder brother works hard at the office yesterday.
4. Bila terdapat 'verb of movement' atau kata kerja yang menunjukkan gerak/ perpindahan, maka di belakangnya langsung diikuti 'adverb of place' yang seolah-olah berfungsi sebagai objek tujuan. Kata kerja tersebut misalnya: go, move, visit, come, run, walk, jump, travel dan lain sebagainya. Contoh:
- I have almost finished working.
- They didn't even try to help.
- She has justfinished breakfast.
- The post has already come.
Bila dalam sebuah kalimat terdapat beberapa keterangan yang sejenis, maka kata keterangan tersebut disusun mulai dari urutan yang terkecil. Namun pola-pola tersebut di atas tetap dipakai. (nomor 1-4). Contoh:
- We will go to Bali by plane.
- She drives her car to the village slowly.
- The finally arrived home after spending the whole night on the road. etc.
Beberapa jenis adverbs tertentu dapat menempati (diletakkan pada) tiga posisi dalam suatu kalimat, di awal, di tengah, atau di akhir kalimat, namun ada pula beberapa adverb yang hanya dapat menempati pads satu atau dua posisi tertentu dalam suatu kalimat.
- He visited the hospital, in J1. Jend. Sudirman, on foot, reluctantly, at 9 o'clock, last Sunday.
b. Predicatives
- I can see a beautiful girl.
- I have got a new book.
2. Object Complement
- Your daughter is pretty.
- She is very beautiful.
- The book is new.
C. Appositives
- He made his wife happy.
- I consider him foolish.
- She pushed the window open.
2. Non-restrictive
- A teacher untrained in Phonetics is as useless as a doctor untrained in anatomy.
- A blacksmith, swarthy and muscular, was leisurely working the long handle of his bellow.
2. Sebagai Object
- What is your phone number?
- That us my house.
3. Sebagai Object of Prepositions
- I can’t complete my assignment because I don’t have the text book.
- The bakery sold his favourite type of bread.
- After many years, she returned to her homeland.
- They give everything to their mother.
2. Indefinite, yang terdiri dari another, the other, an, a, some, dll.
- This book is mine
- Those pictures are beautiful.
- A teacher will come to teach us today.
- They can eat the other apples.
b. Sebagai Object
- What color is your house?
- Whose book is this?
c. Sebagai Object of Prepositions
- I don’t know what problem she is talking about.
- They never question which part of the novel will be summarized.
- With whose father do you speak?
- In which hotel do you like to stay?
- He ate little bread.
- Will you have some tea?
b. Ordinal
- We have three cars at home.
- You can take twelve books.
c. Multiplications
- Our class is in the third floor.
- They will depart on the second flight.
2. Indefinite
- The rooms have a single bed.
- There is a pair of shoes under the table.
- Kata-kata yang termasuk dalam jenis ini adalah all, some, enough, many, dll.
- Many people believe that corporations are under-taxed
- I will buy some pens
- I am waiting for some friends here.
Proper Adjectives
- England
- Holland
- Indonesia, dll
- English
- Dutch
- Indonesian, dll
- English people like drinking tea.
- Arabian people like eating dates.
- She reads every book in the library
- I can choose either red or yellow car.
Dalam bahasa Indonesia, kedua frasa di atas, hamper tidak ada masalah. Namun dalam bahasa Inggris, salah satu diantaranya tidak sesuai dengan standard tata bahasa. Mari kita ingat urutan kata sifat yang benar di depan kata benda.
- Perempuan tua yang kaya, atau
- Perempuan kaya yang tua.
- I have a beautiful large house.
- She has an expensive tennis racket.
2. Kata Sifat yang lebih dari 1 suku kata
- Big – bigger – biggest
- Small – smaller – smallest
- Thin – thinner – thinnest
- Old – older – oldest
- Dst.
3. Kata Sifat yang berakhiran dengan huruf “y”
- Beautiful – more beautiful – most beautiful
- Expensive – more expensive – most expensive
- Interesting – more interesting – most interesting
- Dst
4. Kata Sifat yang berakhiran dengan some, low, le, dan er
- Happy – happier – happiest
- Easy – easier – easiest
- Busy – busier – busiest
Catatan: untuk kata sifat jenis di atas, lebih baik menggunakan more untuk comparative dan most untuk superlative daripada menggunakan …er dan …est, walaupun kedua-duanya benar.
- Handsome – more handsome/handsomer – most handsome/handsomest
- Narrow – more narrow/narrower – most narrow/narrowest
- Gentle – more gentle/gentler – most gentle/gentlest
- Clever – more clever/cleverer – most clever/cleverest
6. Kata Sifat lainnya
- Good – well – best
- Bad – worse – worst
- Little – less – least
- Much – more – most
- Many – more – most
- Far – further/farther – furthest/farthest
- Dll
1. Equal Comparison
- Wrong, right, single, empty, full, equal, correct, unique, universal, perfect, pregnant, dll.
3. Superlative (Tingkat Paling)
- Your house is bigger than mine
- She is more beautiful than her sister
4. Parallel Comparison
- She is the best student in the class.
- Mr. William is the oldest teachers at school.
5. Logical Comparison
- The + comparative, the + comparative (semakin…, semakin…)
- Comparative and comparative (makin lama makin …)
- The harder you study, the better chance you’ll get (makin keras kamu belajar, makin baik pula peluang yang akan kamu peroleh)
- You look more and more beautiful (kamu makin lama makin cantik)
- You are better and better (Kamu makin lama makin bagus saja)
b. That of
- Henry’s salary is much higher than Alex’s
- My mother gets better than yours
c. Those of
- The climate in Bandung is as mild as that of in Palembang (that of = the climate of)
d. Any
- The duties of a driver are much more dangerous than those of a teacher
- Mary is smarter than anybody else in the class.
- Bali is smaller than any other province in Indonesia.
- Henry comes from London.
(Henry datang dari London)- My brother studies in America.
(Abang saya kuliah di Amerika)- She is very beautiful.
(Dia cantik sekali)
- Ms. Anne reads a novel. (Infinitive)
(Nona Anne membaca sebuah novel)- Ms. Anne is reading a novel. (Present Participle)
(Nona Anne sedang membaca sebuah novel)- Does Ms. Anne read a novel? (Question)
(Apakah Nona Anne membaca sebuah Novel?)- Ms. Anne read a novel yesterday. (Past Tense)
(Nona Anne membaca sebuah novel kemarin)- Ms. Anne has read a novel. (Past Participle)
(Nona Anne telah membaca sebuah novel)
- She can swim well.–> Modals
(Dia bisa berenang dengan baik)- You need go to the Doctor. –> Auxiliary
(Kamu perlu menjumpai dokter)- You need to go to the Doctor. –> Finite Verbs
(Kamu perlu menjumpai dokter)
- The actress is beautiful.
(Aktris itu cantik)- Alex looks very serious. (= Alex is serious).
(Alex kelihatannya serius sekali)- The cakes smell delicious (=the cakes are delicious).
(Kue itu aromanya lezat)
- He watches the film.
(Kalimat ini tidak akan lengkap, jika “the film” kita hilangkan. Orang lain akan bertanya-tanya – menonton apa?, maka watch (menonton) membutuhkan object agar makna kalimat tersebut dapat dipahami).- The man cuts the tree.
(Laki-laki itu memotong pohon)
- The baby cries.
(Bayi itu menangis)- My mother is sleeping.
(Ibu saya sedang tidur)- The water boils.
(Air mendidih)
- He drops his bottles. (transitif)
(Dia menjatuhkan botolnya)- The rain drops from the sky. (intransitif)
(Hujan jatuh dari langit)- They grow the rubber trees. (transitif)
(Mereka menanam pohon karet)- Rice grows in the fertile soil. (intransitif)
(Padi tumbuh di tanah yang subur)
- He played the fool.
(Dia bermain gila-gilaan).- He laughs a hard laugh.
(Dia tertawa terbahak-bahak).- He slept a sound sleep.
(Dia tidur nyenyak).- He died a miserable death.
(Dia mati dengan mengenaskan).
- I will make you happy.
(Saya akan membuatmu bahagia)- I appoint him to be my assistant.
(Saya menunjuknya sebagai asisten saya)
- We talked about the problem.
(Kami berbicara mengenai masalah itu)- She felt sorry for coming late.
(Dia merasa bersalah karena datang terlambat)
- They accused me of telling lies.
(Mereka meminta maaf karena menceritakan kebohongan)- Do you suspect the man of being a spy?
(Apakah kamu mencurigai laki-laki itu karena menjadi mata-mata)- I congratulated Bob on passing the exam.
(Saya memberikan selamat kepada Bob karena lulus ujian)- What prevented him from coming to the party?
(Apa yang mencegahnya untuk datang ke pesta itu?)- I thanked her for being so helpful.
(Saya berterima kasih kepadanya karena dia sangat membantu)
- Call – called – called
- Admit – admitted – admitted
- Submit – submitted – submitted
- Invite – invited – invited
- Read – Read – Read
- Come – came – come
- Begin – began – begun
- Sleep – slept – slept
b. Objective, yaitu menjadi objek kalimat. Me, us, you, them, him, her, it.
- I study English
- You are my new secretary.
- She brings me a cup of coffee.
- I make you a kite.
Catatan:
- This, that, those, these.
- This is your book.
- Those are my pencils.
- This book is yours (this = adjectives)
- This is your book. (this = pronouns)
- These are your pencils. (these = pronouns)
- This house is mine. (mine = Possessive Pronouns).
- This is my house. (my = Possessive Adjectives).
b. Menggantikan Objek
- Who (orang)
- Which, that (benda, binatang)
c. Menggantikan kepunyaan
- whom (orang)
- which, that (benda, binatang)
Catatan:
- whose (orang)
- of which (benda, binatang)
Pembahasan lebih lanjut mengenai topic ini akan dibahas pada topic Adjective Clause.
- The man who cuts my hair is my uncle
(Laki-laki yang memangkas rambut saya adalah paman saya).- I am waiting for the man whom you are talking about.
(Saya sedang menunggu laki-laki yang sedang kamu bicarakan)- She borrows the novel of which cover is purple.
(Dia meminjam novel yang sampulnya berwarna ungu)
- Who are you?
- What is the color of your house? (what = Pronouns)
- What color is your house? (what = Adjectives)
- Which is your pen? (which = Pronouns)
- Which pen is yours? (which = Adjectives)
- All work is not dull, some is pleasant.
- Most of the cars are new.
- Nobody is at home.
Contoh:
- I = myself
- You = yourself (kamu)
- You = yourselves (kalian)
- We = ourselves
- They = themselves
- He = himself
- She = herself
- It = itself
- I cut myself with a knife
(saya kena pisau)- They love themselves.
- I help myself this morning.
Catatan:
- Henry himself who told me so.
(Henry sendirilah yang mengatakan begitu kepadaku)- Mary herself repaired the computer.
(Mary sendirilah – bukan orang lain – yang memperbaiki computer itu)- Jack himself gave me the book.
- Alex does the test himself.
(= Alex mengerjakan test itu sendiri – tanpa bantuan orang lain)- Ted himself does the test.
(=Ted sendirilah – bukan orang lain – yang mengerjakan test itu)- Bob does the test by himself.
(= Bob mengerjakan test itu sendirian – tidak ada orang lain bersama dia)
Contoh:
- Each other = satu sama lain (2 orang)
- One another = satu sama lain ( lebih dari 2 orang)
- Henry and Elizabeth loves each other.
(Henry & Elizabeth saling mencintai/ Henry & Elizabeth mencintai satu sama lainnya)- All children love one another.
- soldier – Alan – cousin – Frenchman (Nama Orang)
- rat – zebra – lion – aardvark (Nama Binatang)
- house – London – factory – shelter (Nama Tempat)
- table – frame – printer – chisel (Nama Objek)
- lead – nitrogen – water – ice (Nama untuk Substansi)
- kindness – beauty – bravery – wealth – faith (Nama Kualitas)
- rowing – cooking – barking – reading – listening (Nama Aksi)
- month – inch – day – pound – ounce (Nama Ukuran)
Concrete Nouns terbagi atas:
- car
- house
- chair
- book
b) Proper Nouns
- Car
- Man
- Bridge
- Town
- Water
- Metal
- Ammonia
c) Collective Nouns
- Michael
- Africa
- Peking
- Dayton Peace Accord
- United Nations
- The Tower of London
- Uncle George
(“Uncle” diawali dengan huruf kapital karena kata tersebut sudah menjadi bagian dari namanya.)- My favourite auntie is Auntie Sally.
- The Red Lion
Catatan:
- Choir
- Team
- Jury
- Shoal
- Cabinet (of ministers)
- Regiment
Bila Collective Nouns dianggap sebagai sekumpulan para anggota, maka diperlakukan sebagai kata benda jamak (plural).
- The committee was formed to carry out the task.
(Panitia telah dibentuk untuk melaksanakan tugas itu).
d) Material Nouns
- The jury were enable to agree on a verdict.
(Para juri tidak bisa menyetujui tentang hukuman itu. Artinya yang mengeluarkan pendapat adalah pribadi para anggota jury itu).
e) Compound Nouns
- gold
- water
- fish
- iron
- blood
2) Abstract Nouns
- Mother-in-law
- Board of members
- Court-martial
- Manservant
- Paper-clip
- happiness
- sadness
- wisdom
- courage
- health
2. Huruf Kapital Hanya Untuk Kata-kata yang Bersifat Dasar
- The corporal disobeyed a direct Order. (SALAH)
(“order” adalah common noun – tidak huruf kapital)- It is the largest Church in Birmingham. (SALAH)
(“church”adalah common noun – tidak huruf kapital)
3. Tunggal atau Jamak?
- I must visit the Tower of London. (BENAR)
(“of” bukan kata dasar – tidak huruf kapital. BUKAN: Tower Of London)- Have you seen Day of the Jackal? (BENAR)
(“of” dan “the” are bukan kata dasar – tidak huruf kapital. BUKAN: Day Of The Jackal)
Perhatikan lagi catatan Collective Nouns di atas
- That team wins the league. (BENAR)
(yang menang adalah tim tersebut, bukan masing-masing anggota tim)- The team wear new uniform. (BENAR)
(yang memakai baju seragam adalah masing-masing anggota tim tersebut)
Kata seperti “spoonful”, “plateful” dan “cupful” beda dengan peraturan di atas. Kata-kata tersebut tinggal ditambahkan “s” pada akhir kata tersebut, walaupun kata dasarnya adalah “spoon”, “plate” dan “cup”.
- Mothers-in-law
- Paper-clips
- Forget-me-nots
2. Tambahkan “es” pada kata benda yang berakhiran bunyi desis seperti “s, ss, x, z, ch, dan sh”
- door – doors
- cat – cats
- bird – birds
3. Tambahkan “es” pada kata benda tunggal yang berakhiran huruf “o”
- ass – asses
- bush – bushes
- bus – buses
- box – boxes
- quiz – quizes
- bench – benches
4. Pada kata benda seperti calico, partico, dan mosquito, boleh ditambahkan “s” atau “es”
- Hero – heroes
- Negro – negroes
- Mango – mangoes
5. Tambahkan “s” untuk kata benda yang berakhiran “oo”, “io”, “oe” dan “yo”.
- Calico – calicoes/calicos
- Partico – particoes/particos
- Mosquito – mosquitoes/mosquitos
6. Tambahkan “s” pada beberapa kata benda yang berakhiran “o” yang didahului oleh huruf konsonan.
- bamboo – bamboos
- folio – folios
- cameo – cameos
- embryo – embryos
7. Ganti “y” menjadi “i” lalu ditambah dengan “es” pada kata benda tunggal yang berakhiran “y”
- canto – cantos
- solo – solos
- photo – photos
- radio – radios
8. Tambahkan “s” pada kata benda tunggal yang diakhiri dengan “y” tetapi didahului huruf vokal.
- baby – babies
- lady – ladies
- city – cities
9. Kata benda tunggal yang berakhiran “f” atau “fe”, ubah menjadi “ves”
- boy – boys
- toy – toys
- day – days
10. Ada juga beberapa kata benda tunggal yang berakhiran “f” hanya ditambahkan “s”. Kata benda tersebut seperti hoof, chief, cliff, gulf, roof, proof, dwarf, reef, scarf, turf, grief, safe, dan strife.
- Calf – calves
- wife – wives
- knife – knives
- wolf – wolves
11. Untuk membentuk kata benda majemuk, silahkan kembali lihat penjelasan kata benda majemuk.
- roof – roofs
- dwarf – dwarfs
- safe – safes
13. Tambahkan “en” atau “ne” pada kata benda seperti ox, xhild, brother, dan cow
- man – men
- woman – women
- foot – feet
- tooth – teeth
- goose – geese
- loose – lice
- mouse – mice
14. Ada juga beberapa kata benda yang bentuk jamaknya sama dengan bentuk tunggalnya.
- ox – oxen
- child – children
- brother – brotheren (brothers)
- cow – kine (cows)
Catatan:
- swine – swine
- deer – deer
- sheep – sheep
- fish – fish
- dozen – dozen
- score – score
16. Ada juga kata benda yang tidak memiliki bentuk tunggalnya.
- Swiss – swiss
- series – series
- Balinese – Balinese
- species – species
- dll
17. Ada juga kata benda yang berakhiran “ics” yang berarti ilmu pengetahuan, dan beberapa kata benda yang berakhiran “s” tidak memiliki bentuk jamak.
- glasses, arms, scissors, pliers, trousers, shoes, shorts, clothes, bellows, dsb.
18. Kata benda serapan dari bahasa asing, memiliki bentuk jamak yang berbeda.
- mathematics, physics, politics, news, optics, gallows, billiards, statistics, dsb.
CATATAN:
- antenna – antennae
- apparatus – apparatus
- alumnus – alumni
- datum – data
- focus – foci
- formula – formulae
- genius – genii
- index – indices
- stratum – strata
Namun, ada juga kata benda serapan dalam bentuk jamaknya telah mengikuti bentuk jamak Bahasa Inggris pada umumnya, yaitu dengan menambahkan “s” atau “es”.
- bandit – banditti
- tempo – tempi
- solo – soli
- bureau – bureaux
- madam – mesdames
- appendix – appendices/appendixes
- antenna – antennae/antennas
- formula – formulae/formulas
- focus – foci/focuses
- bureau – bureaux/bureaus
- dll
“A” dan “AN” juga digunakan ketika kita berbicara tentang pekerjaan kita.
- “I saw an elephant this morning.”
- “I ate a banana for lunch
CATATAN
- “I am an English teacher.”
- “I am a builder.”
Kita juga harus menggunakan ” the” di depan kata benda yang sudah kita bicarakan sebelumnya. Perhatikan contoh berikut ini.
- “The apple you ate was rotten.”
- “Did you lock the car?”
Gunakan “the” untuk membicakan titik tertentu pada lokasi geografi.
- “She’s got two children; a girl and a boy. The girl’s eight and the boy’s fourteen.”
Gunakan “the” untuk di depan nama sungai, Samudra dan laut.
- the North Pole, the equator
Gunakan “the” untuk benda yang cuma ada 1 di dunia ini.
- the Nile, the Pacific, the English channel
Namun jika kita ingin menggambarkan contoh khusus, maka gunakan “a” atau “an
- the sun, the wind, the world, the earth, the White House.
Kita juga bisa menggunakan “the” untuk mengatakan tentang orang atau benda tertentu yang sudah terkenal.
- “I could hear the wind.” / “There’s a cold wind blowing.”
- “What are your plans for the future?” / “She has a promising future ahead of her.”
TIDAK ADA ARTICLE
- “Harry’s Bar is the place to go.”
- “You don’t mean you met the Tony Blair, do you?”
Jangan gunakan article untuk menyatakan olah raga .
- Water flows from higher to lower place. (Semua air mengalir dari atas ke bawah, tidak ada air tertentu yang mengalir dari tempat rendah ke tempat tinggi)
- People are worried about rising crime. (Semua orang khawatir akan tingginya kriminalitas)
Jangan gunakan article sebelum kata benda yang tidak dapat dihitung (uncountable nouns) ketika kita membicarakannya secara umum.
- My son plays football.
- Tennis is expensive.
Jangan gunakan article di depan nama negara KECUALI terdiri dari kata-kata seperti (state(s), kindom, republic, union). Kingdom, state, republic dan union adalah kata benda, jadi tidak butuh article.
- Information is important to any organisation.
- Coffee is bad for you.
- Tidak ada article – Italy, Mexico, Bolivia
- Gunakan the – the UK, the USA, the Irish Republic
- Perhatikan! the Netherlands
- Thank
- Thick
- Thin
- Thief
- Thigh
- Thesis
- Thing
- Dll
- They
- There
- Than
- That
- This
- Those
- These
- Dll
I don’t think he should get the job.Perhatikan perbedaan maknanya pada kata yang kami cetak tebal di bawah ini:
(Saya fikir dia seharusnya tidak mendapatkan pekerjaan itu)
Catatan:
- I don’t think he should get the job.
- Arti: Orang lain berfikir bahwa dia seharusnya mendapatkan pekerjaan itu, tapi saya tidak berfikir begitu).
- I don’t think he should get the job.
- Arti: Tidak betul bahwa saya berfikir dia seharusnya mendapatkan pekerjaan itu).
- I don’t think he should get that job.
- Arti: Saya tidak yakin kalau ia akan mendapatkan pekerjaan itu.
- I don’t think he should get that job.
- Arti: Orang lain yang seharusnya mendapatkan pekerjaan itu.
- I don’t think he should get that job.
- Arti: Menurut pendapat saya, salah kalau ia akan mendapatkan pekerjaan itu.
- I don’t think he should get that job.
- Arti: Dia pantas mendapatkan pekerjaan itu.
- I don’t think he should get that job.
- Arti: Dia seharunya mendapatkan pekerjaan yang lainnya.
- I don’t think he should get that job.
- Arti: Mungkin dia sebaiknya mencari pekerjaan lain sebagai penggantinya.
Cocokan jawaban yang tepat di bawah ini untuk tiap kalimat di atas:
- I said she might consider a new haircut.
- I said she might consider a new haircut.
- I said she might consider a new haircut.
- I said she might consider a new haircut.
- I said she might consider a new haircut.
- I said she might consider a new haircut.
- I said she might consider a new haircut.
Pada umumnya, Tonic Stress yang terakhir dalam sebuah kalimatlah yang paling ditekan intonasinya. Pada contoh di atas, maka kata ‘station’ yang seharusnya paling ditekan.
- He’s waiting
- He’s waiting / for his friend
- He’s waiting / for his friend / at the station.
Biasanya kata-kata berikut ini mendapatkan penekanan intonasi.
- That was a difficult test. – Pernyataan standart
- That was a difficult test. – Menekankan betapa sulitnya test itu.
Contrastive Stress
- extremely
- terribly
- completely
- utterly
- especially
- etc.
Contrastive stress juga digunakan untuk memberikan perbedaan makna pada kata-kata yang kita tekankan.
- I think I prefer this color.
- Do you want these or those curtains?
New Information Stress
- He came to the party yesterday. (Bukan orang lain)
- He walked to the party yesterday. (Dia berjalan kaki, bukan naik taxi, dll)
- He came to the party yesterday. (Dia datang ke pesta itu, bukan meeting, konser atau yang lainnya)
- He came to the party yesterday. (Kemarin, bukan hari ini, lusa, minggu yang lalu atau waktu lainnya)
Kita dapat menggunakan lebih dari 1 jenis penekanan kata untuk meningkatkan kualitas dan indahnya bahasa kita.
- Where are you from? – I come from Seattle, in the USA.
- What do you want to do? – I want to go bowling.
- When does class begin? – The class begins at nine o’clock.